Over the last few decades, wild ungulate populations have exhibited relevant geographic and demographic expansion in most European countries; roe deer is amongst the most widespread ungulate species. The increasing roe deer densities have led to strong impact on forest regeneration; the problem has been recently recognized in coppice woods, a silvicultural system which is widespread in Italy, where it amounts to about 56% of the total national forested area. In this study we investigated the effect of roe deer browsing on the vegetative regeneration of Turkey oak few years after coppicing, along a gradient of roe deer density. A browsing index revealed that browsing impact was high at any given roe deer density but increased at higher density, with the browsing rate ranging from 65% to 79%. We also analyzed the long-term impact of browsing six and eleven years after coppicing under a medium roe deer density. Results indicated the early impact are not ephemeral but produced prolonged impacts through time, with an average reduction in volume of-57% and-41% six and eleven years after coppicing, respectively. Based on these results we proposed integrating browsing monitoring with roe deer density estimation to allow identifying ungulate densities which are compatible with silvicultural and forest management objectives. The proposed browsing index can be regarded as an effective management tool, on account of its simplicity and cost-effectiveness, being therefore highly suitable for routine, large scale monitoring of browsing impact.

Reproductive synchrony among gregarious mammals has a strong adaptive value and may lead to cooperative behaviors aimed at maximizing offspring survival. Additionally, temporal clustering of estrus has important implications on individual mating tactics and ultimately affects the degree of polygamy in a population. Although several studies have examined the reproductive biology of wild boar (Sus scrofa), much remains to be understood about the patterns of timing and synchrony of reproduction in natural populations. We analyzed the spatiotemporal distribution of conception dates in an Italian wild boar population taking into account the effects of environmental and individual factors, in order to determine the main variables influencing the timing of reproduction and to detect the signs of a socially-driven reproductive synchrony. Specifically, for each litter belonging to 354 pregnant sows culled between 2006 and 2013 in a mountain area of Tuscany, we determined the conception date (CD) from an estimate of the mean fetal age and the culling date. We then investigated which factors drove the variation in CD, by implementing linear mixed models, Mantel tests and spatial autocorrelation analyses. The selected model showed significant effects of rainfall, temperatures, and previous and current productivity on CD, as well as a strong correlation of CDs among sows culled in close spatial and temporal proximity (i.e., in the same hunting ground and hunting season). Likewise, autocorrelation analyses and Mantel tests consistently indicated that closer sows had similar conception dates. Overall, our results confirm the effect of resource availability and climate on wild boar reproductive phenology, and suggest socially-driven reproductive patterns, in spite of a high turn-over in social groups due to hunting. Finally, possible advantages and evolutionary implications of reproductive synchrony in wild boar are discussed. © 2015 Associazione Teriologica Italiana.